Moving image genre-form guide online, January 22, 2008 (Cameraless animation: type of animation in which the images are drawn directly on the film stock, rather than photographed)

National Film Board of Canada website, March 21, 2008 (Direct-on-film animation does not use a camera; instead the artist draws or etches directly on filmstock)

Lopez, D. Films by genre, 1993: p. 13-14 (Cameraless animated films; Direct animation films; Drawn on films; Graphic animation; Hand-drawn films; Noncamera films; Out-of-camera films: Direct drawing, painting, or scratching on celluloid is a technique which does not require a camera...It is done by working on individual frames, or by working on the strip of film, ignoring the frames; during projection, the movement of the film will create the desired effect)

Yee, Martha M. Moving image materials : genre terms, 1988: p. 53 (Graphic animation: use for animation achieved by drawing or painting directly on the film surface wtihout the use of a camera)

Wikipedia website, January 22, 2008 (Cameraless animation, made famous by moviemakers like Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage, is painted and drawn directly onto pieces of film, and then run through a projector)

Films created by drawing, painting, or scratching the images directly on film stock.